Utilisation en réanimation de propofol

UTILISATION EN RÉANIMATION

La pharmacocinétique du propofol est très altérée chez les patients de réanimation. Elle est caractérisée par une augmentation majeure de la demi-vie d'élimination terminale (qui est de l'ordre de 30 heures) et du VdSS [3].

Cependant, étant donné que les concentrations sanguines adéquates (de l'ordre de 1 μg·mL-1) et les posologies nécessaires (2 à 3 mg·kg-1·h-1) sont modérées, les délais de réveil sont rapides et plus courts que ceux observés avec le midazolam.

La tolérance hémodynamique est satisfaisante mais doit faire éviter toute administration en bolus et corriger préalablement une hypovolémie. Le propofol est un des adjuvants du traitement des poussées d'hypertension intracrânienne chez le neurotraumatisé. Ses effets cérébraux ne sont favorable qu'à la condition d'un maintien strict de la pression artérielle systémique moyenne.

Le volume d'Intralipide® perfusé et le coût sont les principales limites à son emploi comme agent de sédation. Pour des durées supérieures à 3 jours et à une dose moyenne de 2,5 mg·kg-1·h-1, une augmentation des triglycérides sanguins, source potentielle d'un retard de réveil, est constatée. Pour des sédations de moins de 3 jours et à des doses inférieures à 2 mg·kg-1·h-1, il ne semble pas exister d'effet délétère sur le bilan lipidique. L'utilisation chez l'enfant de moins de 15 ans est contre-indiquée car des effets indésirables graves et des décès ont été rapportés sans que l'imputabilité soit indiscutable [139]. Cependant, associé à un morphinique à des posologies inférieures à 5 mg·kg-1 et pour des sédations de courte durée (durée moyenne de 35 heures) dans un contexte postopératoire et non septique, Martin et al n'ont pas mis en évidence d'effet indésirable chez neuf enfants dont l'âge moyen était de 19 mois [83]. Des études complémentaires sont nécessaires pour confirmer son utilisation plus large [60].

CONCLUSION

Le propofol est à la base du renouveau clinique des techniques d'anesthésie totale intraveineuse. II a permis également le développement de nouveaux concepts pharmacocinétiques et pharmacodynamiques. II est le successeur tout désigné du thiopental en tant qu'agent d'induction IV de référence. La rapidité et la qualité du réveil obtenu associées à un effet antiémétique en font un agent particulièrement adapté à la pratique ambulatoire et à l'anesthésie des patients âgés. La reproductibilité de la relation dose-effet et la possibilité de maintenir une ventilation spontanée adéquate sont particulièrement intéressantes pour les gestes pratiqués " en dehors du bloc opératoire " et la sédation de complément facilement prévenus ou corrigés s'il n'est pas administré à des patients hypovolémiques ou ayant une fonction cardiovasculaire précaire. Son coût est le principal frein à une utilisation plus large, en particulier dans le cadre de la sédation en réanimation.

Dix ans après sa commercialisation, le propofol demeure innovant puisqu'il est le premier agent anesthésique à disposer officiellement d'une nouvelle technique d'administration d'avenir : I'AIVOC.

Références

[1] Abboud TK, Zhu J, Richardson M, Peres DA, Silva E, Donovan M Intravenous propofol vs thiamylalisoflurane for caesarean section, comparative maternal and neonatal effects. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1995 ; 39 : 205-209

[2] Adnet P Utilisation du Diprivan dans les myopathies et l'hyperthermie maligne. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1994 ; 13 : 490-493

[3] Albanese J, Martin C, Lacarelle B, Saux P, Durand A, Gouin F Pharmacokinetics of long-term propofol infusion used for sedation in ICU patients. Anesthesiology 1990 ; 73 : 214-217

[4] Ananthanarayan C, Fisher JA Why was the urine green ? [lettre] Can J Anaesth 1995 ; 42 : 87-88

[5] Anker-Moller E, Spangsberg N, Arendt-Nielsen L, Schultz P, Kristensen MS, Bjerring P Subhypnotic doses of thiopentone and propofol cause analgesia to experimentally induced acute pain. Br J Anaesth 1991 ; 66 : 185-188

[6] Avramov MN, Husain MM, White PF The comparative effects of methohexital, propofol, and etomidate for electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 1995 ; 81 : 596-602

[7] Bach A, Motsch J Infectious risks associated with the use of propofol. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1996 ; 40 : 1189-1196

[8] Barker P, Langton JA, Wilson IG, Smith G Movements of the vocal cords on induction of anaesthesia with thiopentone or propofol. Br J Anaesth 1992 ; 69 : 23-25

[9] Ben-Shlomo I, Finger J, Bar-Av E, Perl AZ, Etchin A, Tverskoy M Propofol and fentanyl act additively for induction of anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1993 ; 48 : 111-113

[10] Bilbault P, Boisson-Bertrand D, Duvivier C, Peslin R, Laxenaire MC Influence de l'association propofol-alfentanil sur les résistances bronchiques du sujet asthmatique. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1991 ; 10 : 264-268

[11] Billard V, Moulla F, Bourgain JL, Megnigbeto A, Stanski DR Hemodynamic response to induction and intubation. Propofol/fentanyl interaction Anesthesiology 1994 ; 81 : 1384-1393

[12] Blanloeil Y Porphyries hépatiques aiguës et Diprivan®. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1994 ; 13 : 485-489

[13] Blouin RT, Conard PF, Gross JB Time course of ventilatory depression following induction doses of propofol and thiopental. Anesthesiology 1991 ; 75 : 940-944

[14] Borgeat A, Dessibourg C, Popovic V, Meier D, Blanchard M, Schwander D Propofol and spontaneous movements : an EEG study. Anesthesiology 1991 ; 74 : 24-27

[15] Borrissov B, Langeron O, Lille F, Gomola A, Saillant G, Riou B Effets de l'association propofolsufentanil sur les potentiels évoqués somesthésiques au cours de la chirurgie du rachis. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1995 ; 14 : 326-330

[16] Botta G, D'Angelo A, D'Ari G, Merlino G, Chapman M, Grudzinskas G Epidural anesthesia in an in vitro fertilization and embrye transfer program. J Assist Reprod Genet 1995 ; 12 : 187-190

[17] Bülow K, Nielsen TG, Lund J The effect of topical lignocaine on intubating conditions after propofol-alfentanil induction. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1996 ; 40 : 752-756

[18] Canavero S, Bonicalzi V, Pagni CA, Castellano G, Merante R, Gentile S , et al. Propofol analgesia in central pain : preliminary clinical observations. J Neurol 1995 ; 242 : 561-567

[19] Carlsson U, Grattidge P Sedation for upper gastrointestinal endoscopy : a comparative study of propofol and midazolam. Endoscopy 1995 ; 27 : 240-243

[20] Chassard D, Berrada K, Bryssine B, Guiraud M, Bouletreau P Influence of body compartments on propofol induction dose in female patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1996 ; 40 : 889-891

[21] Chaudhri S, White M, Kenny GN Induction of anaesthesia with propofol using a targetcontrolle infusion system. Anaesthesia 1992 ; 47 : 551-553

[22] Cigarini I, Bonnet F, Lorino AM, Harf A, Desmonts JM Comparison of the effects of fentanyl on respiratory mechanics under propofol or thiopental anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1990 ; 34 : 253-256

[23] Coghlan SF, McDonald PF, Csepregi G Use of alfentanil with propofol for nasotracheal intubation without neuromuscular block. Br J Anaesth 1993 ; 70 : 89-91

[24] Collins GG Effects of the anaesthetic 2, 6-diisopropylphenol on synaptic transmission in the rat olfactory cortex slice. Br J Pharmacol 1988 ; 95 : 939-949

[25] Cork RC, Heaton JF, Campbell CE, Kihlstrom JF Is there implicit memory after propofol sedation ? Br J Anaesth 1996 ; 76 : 492-498

[26] Davidson JA, Gillespie JA Tracheal intubation after induction of anaesthesia with propofol, alfentanil and i. v. lignocaine Br J Anaesth 1993 ; 70 : 163-166

[27] Desmonts JM, Conseiller C Du bon usage de Diprivan® (Propofol) en anesthésie. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1994 ; 13 : 441-446

 [28] Dexter F, Tinker JH Comparisons between desflurane and isoflurane or propofol on time to following commands and time to discharge. A metaanalysis Anesthesiology 1995 ; 83 : 77-82

[29] Dixon J, Roberts FL, Tackley RM, Lewis GT, Connell H, Prys-Roberts C Study of the possible interaction between fentanyl and propofol using a computer-controlled infusion of propofol. Br J Anaesth 1990 ; 64 : 142-147

[30] Dominici L, Gondret R, Dubos S, Crevot O, Deligne P Intubation en chirurgie ORL : propofol vs propofol-suxaméthonium. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1990 ; 9 : 110-114

[31] Driver IK, Wiltshire S, Mills P, Lillywhite N, Howard-Griffin R Midazolam co-induction and laryngeal mask insertion. Anaesthesia 1996 ; 51 : 782-784

[32] Dundee JW, Robinson FP, McCollum JS, Patterson CC Sensitivity to propofol in the elderly. Anaesthesia 1986 ; 41 : 482-485

[33] Dyck JB, Shafer SL Effects of age on propofol pharmacokinetics. Semin Anesth 1992 ; 11(suppl 1) : 2-4

[34] Eames WO, Rooke GA, Wu RS, Bishop MJ Comparison of the effects of etomidate, propofol, and thiopental on respiratory resistance after tracheal intubation. Anesthesiology 1996 ; 84 : 1307-1311

[35] Ebert TJ, Muzi M Propofol and autonomic reflex function in humans. Anesth Analg 1994 ; 78 : 369-375

[36] El-Beheiry H, Kim J, Milne B, Seegobin R Prophylaxis against the systemic hypotension induced by propofol during rapid-sequence intubation. Can J Anaesth 1995 ; 42 : 875-878

[37] Ewen A, Archer DP, Samanani N, Roth SH Hyperalgesia during sedation : effects of barbiturates and propofol in the rat. Can J Anaesth 1995 ; 42 : 532-540

[38] Fassoulaki A, Farinotti R, Servin F, Desmonts JM Chronic alcoholism increases the induction dose of propofol in humans. Anesth Analg 1993 ; 77 : 553-556

[39] Fierobe L, Cantineau JP, Pandele G, Desmonts JM Effets respiratoires du propofol mesurés par la spirométrie indirecte. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1991 ; 10 : 10-15

[40] Follette JW, Farley WJ Anesthesiologist addicted to propofol. Anesthesiology 1992 ; 77 : 817- 818

[41] Francon D, Pellissier D, Viviand X, Paulo F, Francois G Effets d'une dose additionnelle de propofol sur la pression intraoculaire chez les sujets de plus de 60 ans. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1991 ; 10 : 260-263

[42] Frankville DD, Spear RM, Dyck JB The dose of propofol required to prevent children from moving during magnetic resonance imaging. Anesthesiology 1993 ; 79 : 953-958

[43] Fredman B, D'Etienne J, Smith I, Husain MM, White PF Anesthesia for electroconvulsive therapy : effects of propofol and methohexital on seizure activity and recoverys. Anesth Analg 1994 ; 79 : 75-79

[44] Fredman B, Nathanson MH, Smith I, Wang J, Klein K, White PF Sevoflurane for outpatient anesthesia : a comparison with propofol. Anesth Analg 1995 ; 81 : 823-828

[45] Gamlin F, Vucevic M, Winslow L, Berridge J The haemodynamic effects of propofol in combination with ephedrines. Anaesthesia 1996 ; 51 : 488-491

[46] Gelissen HP, Epema AH, Henning RH, Krijnen HJ, Hennis PJ, Den Hertog A Inotropic effects of propofol, thiopental, midazolam, etomidate, and ketamine on isolated human atrial muscle. Anesthesiology 1996 ; 84 : 397-403

[47] Gepts E, Camu F, Cockshott ID, Douglas EJ Disposition of propofol administered as constant rate intravenous infusions in humans. Anesth Analg 1987 ; 66 : 1256-1263

[48] Gepts E, Jonckheer K, Maes V, Sonck W, Camu F Disposition kinetics of propofol during altentanil anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1988 ; 43(suppl) : 8-13

[49] Gill SS, Wright EM, Reilly CS Pharmacokinetic interaction of propofol and fentanyl : single bolus injection study. Br J Anaesth 1990 ; 65 : 760-765

[50] Gillies GW, Lees NW The effects of speed of injection on induction with propofol. A comparison with etomidates Anaesthesia 1989 ; 44 : 386-388

[51] Gin T, Gregory MA, Oh TE The haemodynamic effects of propofol and thiopentone for induction of caesarean section. Anaesth Intensive Care 1990 ; 18 : 175-179

[52] Glass PS, Sebel PS, Rosow C, Payne F, Embree P, Sigl J Do women wake up faster than men ? Anesthesiology 1996 ; 85 : A343

[53] Goto T, Marota JJ, Crosby G Pentobarbitone, but not propofol, produces pre-emptive analgesia in the rat formalin model. Br J Anaesth 1994 ; 72 : 662-667

[54] Gray PA, Park GR, Cockshott ID, Douglas EJ, Shuker B, Simons PJ Propofol metabolism in man during the anhepatic and reperfusion phases of liver transplantation. Xenobiotica 1992 ; 22 : 105-114

[55] Green TR, Bennett SR, Nelson VM Specificity and properties of propofol as an antioxidant free radical scavenger. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1994 ; 129 : 163-169 [crossref]

[56] Grundmann U, Ziehmer M, Kreienmeyer J, Larsen R, Altmayer P Propofol and volatile anaesthetics. Br J Anaesth 1994 ; 72(suppl 1) : A170

[57] Guidon-Attali C, Mouillac F, Quilichini D, Paut O, Francois G Propofol as the main anaesthetic agent in dental surgerys. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1990 ; 34 : 397-399

[58] Hartung J, Ying H, Weinberger J, Cottrell JE Propofol prevents or elevates the threshold for lidocaine-induced seizures in rats. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1994 ; 6 : 254-259

[59] Hasan Z, Khatib S, Abu-Laban A Effects of propofol and thiopentone on picrotoxin convulsive threshold in the rabbits. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1995 ; 73 : 714-717

[60] Hatch DJ Propofol in paediatric intensive care. Br J Anaesth 1997 ; 79 : 274-275

[61] Hendolin H, Kansanen M, Koski E, Nuutinen J Propofol-nitrous oxide versus thiopentoneisoflurane- nitrous oxide anaesthesia for uvulopalatopharyngoplasty in patients with sleep apnea. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1994 ; 38 : 694-698

[62] Hoffman WE, Zsigmond E, Albrecht RF The bispectral index during induction of anesthesia with midazolam and propofol. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1996 ; 8 : 15-20 [crossref]

[63] Hovorka J, Honkavaara P, Korttila K Tracheal intubation after induction of anaesthesia with thiopentone or propofolwithout muscle relaxantsss. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1991 ; 35 : 326- 328

[64] Hug CC, McLeskey CH, Nahrwold ML, Roizen MF, Stanley TH, Thisted RA , et al. Hemodynamic effects of propofol : data from over 25,000 patients. Anesth Analg 1993 ; 77(suppl) : S21-S29

[65] Hugues MA, Glass PS, Jacobs JR Context-sensitive half-time in multicompartment pharmacokinetic models for intravenous anesthetic drugs. Anesthesiology 1992 ; 76 : 334- 341

[66] Hui TW, Short TG, Hong W, Suen T, Gin T, Plummer J Additive interactions between propofol and ketamine when used for anesthesia induction in female patients. Anesthesiology 1995 ; 82 : 641-648

[67] Hullander RM, Leivers D, Wingler K A comparison of propofol and etomidate for cardioversion. Anesth Analg 1993 ; 77 : 690-694

[68] Ismail EF, Kim SJ, Salem MR, Crystal GJ Direct effects of propofol on myocardial contractility in in situ canine hearts. Anesthesiology 1992 ; 77 : 964-972

[69] Jain U, Body SC, Bellows W, Woman R, Mangano CM, Mathew J , et al. Multicenter study of target-controlled infusion of propofol-sufentanil or sufentanil-midazolam for coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Anesthesiology 1996 ; 85 : 522-535

[70] Kain ZN, Gaal DJ, Kain TS, Jaeger DD, Rimar SA first-pass cost analysis of propofol versus barbiturates for children undergoing magnetic resonance imaging. Anesth Analg 1994 ; 79 : 1102-1106

[71] Kataria BK, Ved SA, Nicodemus HF, Hoy GR, Lea D, Dubois MY , et al. The pharmacokinetics of propofol in children using three different data analysis approaches. Anesthesiology 1994 ; 80 : 104-122

[72] Kay B, Rolly G ICI 35868 A new intravenous induction agent. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1977 ; 28 : 303

[73] Kirkpatrick T, Cockshott ID, Douglas EJ, Nimmo WS Pharmacokinetics of propofol (Diprivan®) in elderly patients. Br J Anaesth 1988 ; 60 : 146-150

[74] Kochs E, Hoffman WE, Werner C, Thomas C, Albrecht RF, Schulte AM , et al. The effects of propofol on brain electrical activity, neurologic outcome, and neuronal damage following incomplete ischemia in rats. Anesthesiology 1992 ; 76 : 245-252

[75] Kokita N, Hara A Propofol attenuates hydrogen peroxide-induced mechanical and metabolic derangements in the isolated rat heart. Anesthesiology 1996 ; 84 : 117-127

[76] Lavoie J, Walsh EP, Burrows FA, Laussen P, Lulu JA, Hansen DD Effects of propofol or isoflurane anesthesia on cardiac conduction in children undergoing radiofrequency catheter ablation for tachydysrhythmias. Anesthesiology 1995 ; 82 : 884-887

[77] Laxenaire MC, Mata-Bermejo E, Moneret-Vautrin DA, Gueant JL Life-threatening anaphylactoid reactions to propofol (Diprivan®). Anesthesiology 1992 ; 77 : 275-280

[78] Leslie K, Crankshaw DP Potency of propofol for loss of consciousness after a single dose. Br J Anaesth 1990 ; 64 : 734-736

[79] Leslie K, Sessler DI, Schroeder M, Walters K Propofol blood concentration and the Bispectral Index predict suppression of learning during propofol/epidural anesthesia in volunteers. Anesth Analg 1995 ; 81 : 1269-1274

[80] Lindgren L, Yli-Hankala A, Randell T, Kirvela M, Scheinin M, Neuvonen PJ Haemodynamic and catecholamine responses to induction of anaesthesia and tracheal intubation : comparison between propofol and thiopentone. Br J Anaesth 1993 ; 70 : 306-310

[81] Lowe D, Hettrick DA, Pagel PS, Warltier DC Propofol alters left ventricular afterload as evaluated by aortic input impedance in dogs. Anesthesiology 1996 ; 84 : 368-376

[82] Lowson S, Gent JP, Goodchild CS Convulsive thresholds in mice during the recovery phase from anaesthesia induced by propofol, thiopentone, methohexitone and etomidate. Br J Pharmacol 1991 ; 102 : 879-882

[83] Martin PH, Murthy BV, Petros AJ Metabolic, biochemical and maemodynamic effects of infusion of propofol for long-term sedation of children undergoing intensive care. Br J Anaesth 1997 ; 79 : 276-279

[84] Martin TM, Nicolson SC, Bargas MS Propofol anesthesia reduces emesis and airway obstruction in pediatric outpatients. Anesth Analg 1993 ; 76 : 144-148

[85] Martlew RA, Meakin G, Wadsworth R, Sharples A, Baker RD Dose of propofol for laryngeal mask airway insertion in children : effect of premedication with midazolam. Br J Anaesth 1996 ; 76 : 308-309

[86] Masuda A, Hirota K, Satone T, Ito Y Pink urine during propofol anesthesia [letter]. Anesth Analg 1996 ; 83 : 666-667

[87] Mathru M, Esch O, Lang J, Herbert ME, Chalijub G, Goodacre B , et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the upper airway.Effects of propofol anesthesia and nasal continuous positive airway pressure in humans Anesthesiology 1996 ; 84 : 273-279

[88] McKeating K, Bali IM, Dundee JW The effects of thiopentone and propofol on upper airway integrity. Anaesthesia 1988 ; 43 : 638-640

[89] McLeskey CH, Walawander CA, Nahrwold ML, Roizen MF, Stanley TH, Thisted RA , et al. Adverse events in a multicenter phase IV study of propofol : evaluation by anesthesiologists and postanesthesia care unit nurses. Anesth Analg 1993 ; 77 : S3-S9

[90] Merola C, Albarracin C, Lebowitz P, Bienkowski RS, Barst SM An audit of adverse events in

children sedated with chloral hydrate or propofol during imaging studies. Paediatr

Anaesth 1995 ; 5 : 375-378

[91] Mouren S, Baron JF, Albo C, Szekely B, Arthaud M, Viars P Effects of propofol and thiopental on coronary blood flow and myocardial performance in an isolated rabbit heart. Anesthesiology 1994 ; 80 : 634-641

[92] Murat I, Billard V, Vernois J, Zaouter M, Marsol P, Souron R , et al. Pharmacokinetics of propofol after a single dose in children aged 1-3 years with minor burns. Comparison of three data analysis approaches Anesthesiology 1996 ; 84 : 526-532

[93] Murphy PG, Myers DS, Davies MJ, Webster NR, Jones JG The antioxidant potential of propofol (2, 6-diisopropylphenol). Br J Anaesth 1992 ; 68 : 613-618

[94] Murray JM, Phillips AS, Fee JP Comparison of the effects of isoflurane and propofol on hepatic glutathione-S-transferase concentrations during and after prolonged anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1994 ; 72 : 599-601

[95] Myles PS, Buckland MR, Weeks AM, Bujor MA, McRae R, Langley M , et al. Hemodynamic effects, myocardial ischemia and timing of tracheal extubation with propofol-based anesthesia for cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 1997 ; 84 : 12-19

[96] Naguib M, Sari-Kouzel A, Seraj M, El-Gammal M, Gomma M Induction dose-responses studies with propofol and thiopentone. Br J Anaesth 1992 ; 68 : 308-310

[97] Nagyova B, Dorrington KL, Gill EW, Robbins PA Comparison of the effects of sub-hypnotic concentrations of propofol and halothane on the acute ventilatory response to hypoxia. Br J Anaesth 1995 ; 75 : 713-718

[98] Nates J, Avidan A, Gozal Y, Gertel M Appearance of white urine during propofol anesthesia [letter]. Anesth Analg 1995 ; 81 : 210

[99] Nathanson MH, Gajraj NM, Russell JA Prevention of pain on injection of propofol : a comparison of lidocaine with alfentanil. Anesth Analg 1996 ; 82 : 469-471

[100] Oxorn D, Orser B, Ferris LE, Harrington E Propofol and thiopental anesthesia : a comparison of the incidence of dreams and perioperative mood alterations. Anesth Analg 1994 ; 79 : 553-557

[101] Pac-Soo CK, Lockwood G, Carr C, Whitwam JG Patient-controlled sedation for cataract surgery using peribulbar block. Br J Anaesthe 1996 ; 77 : 370-374

[102] Pain L, Oberling P, Sandner G, Di Scala G Effect of propofol on affective state as assessed by place conditioning paradigm in rats. Anesthesiology 1996 ; 85 : 121-128

[103] Paut O, Guidon-Attali C, Viviand X, Lacarelle B, Bouffier C, Francois G Pharmacodynamic properties of propofol during recovery from anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1992 ; 36 : 62-66

[104] Pavlin DJ, Coda B, Shen DD, Tschanz J, Nguyen Q, Schaffer R , et al. Effects of combining propofol and alfentanil on ventilation, analgesia, sedation, and emesis in human volunteers. Anesthesiology 1996 ; 84 : 23-37

[105] Peacock JE, Lewis RP, Reilly CS, Nimmo WS Effect of different rates of infusion of propofol for induction of anaesthesia in elderly patients. Br J Anaesth 1990 ; 65 : 346-352

[106] Pinaud M, Lelausque JN, Chetanneau A, Fauchoux N, Menegalli D, Souron R Effects of propofol on cerebral hemodynamics and metabolism in patients with brain trauma. Anesthesiology 1990 ; 73 : 404-409

[107] Pizov R, Brown RH, Weiss YS, Baranov D, Hennes H, Baker S , et al. Wheezing during induction of general anesthesia in patients with and without asthma. A randomized, blinded trial Anesthesiology 1995 ; 82 : 1111-1116

[108] Polster MR, Gray PA, O'Sullivan G, McCarthy RA, Park GR Comparison of the sedative and amnesic effects of midazolam and propofol. Br J Anaesth 1993 ; 70 : 612-616

[109] Ravussin P, De Tribolet N, Giannott SL Total intravenous anesthesia with propofol for burst suppression in cerebral aneurysm surgery - preliminary report of 42 patients. Neurosurgery 1993 ; 32 : 236-240

[110] Richards MJ, Skues MA, Jarvis AP, Prys-Roberts C Total intravenous anaesthesia with propofol and alfentanil : dose requirements for propofol and the effect of premedication with clonidine. Br J Anaesth 1990 ; 65 : 157-163

[111] Ridenour TR, Warner DS, Todd MM, Gionet TX Comparative effects of propofol and halothane on outcome

from temporary middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat. Anesthesiology 1992 ; 76 : 807-812

[112] Ries CR, Scoates PJ, Puil E Opisthotonos following propofol : a nonepileptic perspective and treatment strategy. Can J Anaesth 1994 ; 41 : 414-419

[113] Rimaniol JM, D'Honneur G, Duvaldestin P Recovery of the swallowing reflex after propofol anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1994 ; 79 : 856-859

[114] Riou B, Besse S, Lecarpentier Y, Viars P In vitro effects of propofol on rat myocardium. Anesthesiology 1992 ; 76 : 609-616

[115] Riou B, Lejay M, Lecarpentier Y, Viars P Myocardial effects of propofol in hamsters with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Anesthesiology 1995 ; 82 : 566-573

[116] Roberts FL, Dixon J, Lewis GT, Tackley RM, Prys-Roberts C Induction and maintenance of propofol anaesthesia. A manual infusion scheme Anaesthesia 1988 ; 43(suppl) : 14-17

[117] Robinson BJ, Ebert TJ, O'Brien TJ, Colinco MD, Muzi M Mechanisms whereby propofol mediates peripheral vasodilation in humans. Sympathoinhibition or direct vascular relaxation ? Anesthesiology 1997 ; 86 : 64-72 [crossref]

[118] Robinson FP Propofol (`Diprivan') by intermittent bolus with nitrous oxide in oxygen for body surface operations. Postgrad Med J 1985 ; 61(suppl 3) : 116-119

[119] Romano R, Ciccaglioni A, Fattorini F, Quaglione R, Favaro R, Arcioni R , et al. Effects of propofol on the human heart electrical system : a transesophageal pacing electrophysiologic study. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1994 ; 38 : 30-32

[120] Rouby JJ, Andreev A, Leger P, Arthaud M, Landault C, Vicaut E , et al. Peripheral vascular effects of thiopental and propofol in humans with artifical hearts. Anesthesiology 1991 ; 75 : 32-42

[121] Rousseau JM, Lemardeley P, Giraud D, Lemarie J, Ladagnous JF, Barriot P , et al. Intubation endotrachéale sous propofol avec ou sans vécuronium. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1995 ; 14 : 261-264

[122] Runciman WB, Mather LE, Selby DG Cardiovascular effects of propofol and of thiopentone anaesthesia in the sheep. Br J Anaesth 1990 ; 65 : 353-359

[123] Sanou J, Ilboudo D, Goodall G, Bourdallé-Badie C, Erny P Évaluation des fonctions cognitives après anesthesie au propofol. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1996 ; 15 : 1155-1161 [crossref]

[124] Scanlon P, Carey M, Power M, Kirby F Patient response to laryngeal mask insertion after induction of anaesthesia with propofol or thiopentone. Can J Anaesth 1993 ; 40 : 816-818

[125] Scheepstra GL, Booij LH, Rutten CL, Coenen LG Propofol for induction and maintenance of anaesthesia : comparison between younger and older patients. Br J Anaesth 1989 ; 62 : 54- 60

[126] Scheiber G, Ribeiro FC, Karpienski H, Strehl K Deep sedation with propofol in preschool children undergoing radiation therapy. Paediatr Anaesth 1996 ; 6 : 209-213

[127] Scheller MS, Zornow MH, Saidman LJ Tracheal intubation without the use of muscle relaxants : a technique using propofol and varying doses of alfentanil. Anesth Analg 1992 ; 75 : 788- 793

[128] Schüttler J, Kloos S, Repcke H, Ihmsen H Age dependant dose requirements of propofol in total intravenous anesthesia as quantified by closed-loop EEG feed-back infusion strategies. Anesthesiology 1992 ; 77 : A338

[129] Schwender D, Kaiser A, Klasing S, Peter K, Poppel E Midlatency auditory evoked potentials and explicit and implicit memory in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 1994 ; 80 : 493-501

[130] Sear JW, Glen JB Propofol administered by a manual infusion regimen. Br J Anaesth 1995 ; 74 : 362-367

[131] Seifert HA, Blouin RT, Conard PF, Gross JB Sedative doses of propofol increase beta activity of the processed electroencephalogram. Anesth Analg 1993 ; 76 : 976-978

[132] Servin F, Cockshott ID, Farinotti R, Haberer JP, Winckler C, Desmonts JM Pharmacokinetics of propofol infusions in patients with cirhosis. Br J Anaesth 1990 ; 65 : 177-183

[133] Servin F, Farinotti R, Haberer JP, Desmonts JM Propofol infusion for maintenance of anesthesia in morbidly obese patients receiving nitrous oxide. A clinical and pharmacokinetic study Anesthesiology 1993 ; 78 : 657-665

[134] Sharpe MD, Dobkowski WB, Murkin JM, Klein G, Yee R Propofol has no direct effect on sinoatrial node function or on normal atrioventricular and accessory pathway conduction in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome during alfentanil/midazolam anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1995 ; 82 : 888-895

[135] Simons PJ, Cockshott ID, Douglas EJ, Gordon EA, Hopkins K, Rowland M Disposition in male volunteers of a subanaesthetic intravenous dose of an oil in water emulsion of 14Cpropofol. Xenobiotica 1988 ; 18 : 429-440

[136] Smith C, McEwan AI, Jhaveri R, Wilkinson M, Goodman D, Smith LR , et al. The interaction of fentanyl on the Cp50 of propofol for loss of consciousness and skin incision. Anesthesiology 1994 ; 81 : 820-828

[137] Stokes DN, Hutton P Rate-dependent induction phenomena with propofol : implications for the relative potency of intravenous anesthetics. Anesth Analg 1991 ; 72 : 578-583

[138] Strebel S, Lam AM, Matta B, Mayberg TS, Aaslid R, Newell DW Dynamic and static cerebral autoregulation during isoflurane, desflurane, and propofol anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1995 ; 83 : 66-76

[139] Strickland RA, Murray MJ Fatal metabolic acidosis in a pediatric patient receiving an infusion of propofol in the intensive care unit : is there a relationship ? Crit Care Med 1995 ; 23 : 405- 409

[140] Struys M, Versichelen L, Rolly G Effect of premedication on `Diprifusor' TCI. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1995 ; 10(suppl) : 85-86

[141] Teh J, Short TG, Wong J, Tan P Pharmacokinetic interactions between midazolam and propofol : an infusion study. Br J Anaesth 1994 ; 72 : 62-65

[142] Todd MM, Warner DS, Sokoll MD A prospective, comparative trial of three anesthetics for elective supratentorial craniotomy. Propofol/fentanyl, isoflurane/nitrous oxyde, and fentanyl/nitrous oxyde Anesthesiology 1993 ; 78 : 1005-1020

[143] Tournadre JP, Chassard D, Berrada KR, Manganas D, Boulétreau P Anestésie pour " estomac

plein " : effets du thiopental et du propofol associés au suxaméthonium sur le sphincter

inférieur de l'oesophage. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1996 ; 15 : R091

[144] Tramer M, Moore A, Mc Quay H Propofol anaesthesia and postoperative nausea and vomiting : quantitative systematic review of randomized controlled studies. Br J Anaesth 1997 ; 78 : 247-255

[145] Tzabar Y, Brydon C, Gillies GW Induction of anaesthesia with midazolam and a targetcontrolled propofol infusion. Anaesthesia 1996 ; 51 : 536-538

[146] Van Keer L, Van Aken H, Vandermeersch E, Vermaut G, Lerut T Propofol does not inhibit hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in humans. J Clin Anesth 1989 ; 1 : 284-288

[147] Vandesteene A, Trempont V, Engelman E Effect of propofol on cerebral blood flow and metabolism in man. Anaesthesia 1988 ; 43(suppl) : 42-43

[148] Veselis RA, Reinsel RA, Wronski M, Marino P, Tong WP, Bedford RF EEG and memory effects of low-dose infusions of propofol. Br J Anaesth 1992 ; 69 : 246-254

[149] Vinik HR, Bradley EL, Kissin I Triple anesthetic combination : propofol-midazolamalfentanil. Anesth Analg 1994 ; 78 : 354-358

[150] Viviand X Modes d'administration du Diprivan®. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1994 ; 13 : 524-527

[151] Viviand X, Pugeaut D, Grimaud JC, Lichau J, Martin C Anesthésie pour coloscopie ambulatoire : comparaison d'une administration manuelle et d'une perfusion assistée par ordinateur. Ann Fr Anesth Réanim 1994 ; 13 : R130

[152] Vuyk J, Engbers FH, Lemmens HJ, Burm AG, Vletter AA, Gladines MP , et al. Pharmacodynamics of propofol in female patients. Anesthesiology 1992 ; 77 : 3-9

[153] Vuyk J, Lim T, Engbers FH, Burm AG, Vletter AA, Bovill JG The pharmacodynamic interaction of propofol and alfentanil during lower abdominal surgery in women. Anesthesiology 1995 ; 83 : 8-22

[154] Wahr JA, Plunkett JJ, Ramsay JG, Reeves J, Jain U, Ley C , et al. Cardiovascular responses during sedation after coronary revascularization. Incidence of myocardial ischemia and hemodynamic episodes with propofol versus midazolam. Institutions of the McSPI Research Group Anesthesiology 1996 ; 84 : 1350-1360

[155] Warden JC, Pickford DR Fatal cardiovascular collapse following propofol induction in high-risk patients and dilemmas in the selection of a short-acting induction agent. Anaesth Intensive Care 1995 ; 23 : 485-487

[156] Whitehead C, Sanders LD, Oldroyd G, Haynes TK, Marshall RW, Rosen M , et al. The subjective effects of low-dose propofol. A double-blind study to evaluate dimensions of sedation and consciousness with low-dose propofol Anaesthesia 1994 ; 49 : 490-496

[157] Wilder-Smith OH, Kolletzki M, Wilder-Smith CH Sedation with intravenous infusions of propofol or thiopentone. Effects on pain perception Anaesthesia 1995 ; 50 : 218-222

[158] Zacny JP, Lichtor JL, Coalson DW, Finn RS, Uitvlugt AM, Glosten B , et al. Subjective and psychomotor effects of subanesthetic doses of propofol in healthy volunteers. Anesthesiology 1992 ; 76 : 696